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'''Martin Van Buren'''; born '''Maarten Van Buren'''; December 5, 1782;– July 24, 1862) was an American statesman who served as the eighth [[president of the United States]] from 1837 to 1841. He was the first president born after the independence of the United States from the [[British Empire]]. A founder of the [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic Party]], he previously served as the ninth [[governor of New York]], the tenth [[United States Secretary of State|United States secretary of state]], and the eighth [[vice president of the United States]]. He won the 1836 presidential election with the endorsement of popular outgoing President [[Andrew Jackson]] and the organizational strength of the Democratic Party. He lost his 1840 reelection bid to [[Whig Party (United States)|Whig Party]] nominee [[William Henry Harrison]], due in part to the poor economic conditions of the [[Panic of 1837]]. Later in his life, Van Buren emerged as an elder statesman and important anti-slavery leader, who led the [[Free Soil Party]] ticket in the 1848 presidential election.

Van Buren was born in [[Kinderhook (village), New York|Kinderhook, New York]], to a family of [[Dutch Americans]]; his father was a soldier during the [[United States War of Independence|American Revolution]]. He was raised speaking Dutch and learned English at school, making him the only U.S. president who spoke English as a second language. He trained as a lawyer and quickly became involved in politics as a member of the [[Democratic-Republican Party]]. He won election to the [[New York State Senate]] and became the leader of the [[Bucktails]], the faction of Democratic-Republicans opposed to Governor [[DeWitt Clinton]]. Van Buren established a political machine known as the [[Albany Regency]] and in the 1820s emerged as the most influential politician in his home state. He was elected to the [[United States Senate]] in 1821 and supported [[William H. Crawford]] in the 1824 presidential election. [[John Quincy Adams]] won the 1824 election and Van Buren opposed his proposals for federally funded internal improvements and other measures. Van Buren's major political goal was to re-establish a two-party system with partisan differences based on ideology rather than personalities or sectional differences, and he supported Jackson's candidacy against Adams in the 1828 presidential election with this goal in mind. To support Jackson's candidacy, Van Buren ran for Governor of New York; he won, but resigned a few months after assuming the position to accept appointment as U.S. Secretary of State after Jackson took office in March, 1829.

Van Buren was a key advisor during Jackson's eight years as President of the United States and he built the organizational structure for the coalescing Democratic Party, particularly in New York. He resigned from his position to help resolve the [[Petticoat affair]], then briefly served as the U.S. ambassador to the United Kingdom. At Jackson's behest, the [[1832 Democratic National Convention]] nominated Van Buren for Vice President of the United States, and he took office after the Democratic ticket won the 1832 presidential election. With Jackson's strong support, Van Buren faced little opposition for the presidential nomination at the 1835 Democratic National Convention, and he defeated several Whig opponents in the 1836 United States presidential election. He continued Jackson's policy of [[Indian removal]]; he maintained peaceful relations with Britain but denied the application to admit Texas to the Union, seeking to avoid heightened sectional tensions. In the 1840 election, the Whigs rallied around Harrison's military record and ridiculed Van Buren as "Martin Van Ruin", and a surge of new voters helped turn him out of office.

At the opening of the Democratic convention in 1844, Van Buren was the leading candidate for the party's nomination for the presidency. Southern Democrats, however, were angered by his continued opposition to the annexation of Texas, and the party nominated [[James K. Polk]]. Van Buren grew increasingly opposed to slavery after he left office, and he agreed to lead a third party ticket in the 1848 presidential election, motivated additionally by intra-party differences at the state and national level. He finished in a distant third nationally, but his presence in the race most likely helped Whig nominee [[Zachary Taylor]] defeat Democrat [[Lewis Cass]]. Van Buren returned to the Democratic fold after the 1848 election, but he supported [[Abraham Lincoln]]'s policies during the [[American Civil War]]. His health began to fail in 1861, and he died in July 1862, at age 79. He has been [[Historical rankings of presidents of the United States|generally ranked]] as an average or below-average U.S. president by historians and political scientists.

==Early life and education==
Van Buren was born as '''Maarten Van Buren''' on December 5, 1782, in the village of [[Kinderhook (village), New York|Kinderhook, New York]], south of [[Albany, Albany county, New York|Albany]] on the [[Hudson River]]. By American law, he was the first U.S. president not born a British subject, nor of British ancestry. However, because he was born during the American Revolution and before the Peace of Paris, he was for the purposes of British law a British subject at birth.

His father, Abraham Van Buren, was a descendant of Cornelis Maessen of the village of [[Buurmalsen]] in Netherlands, who had come to North America in 1631, and purchased a plot of land on Manhattan Island. Abraham Van Buren had favored United States independence during the [[American Revolution]], He owned an inn and tavern in Kinderhook and served as Kinderhook's town clerk for several years. In 1776, he married Maria Hoes Van Alen (sometimes spelled "Goes"), also of Dutch extraction and the widow of Johannes Van Alen. She had three children from her first marriage, including future U.S. Representative [[James I. Van Alen]]. Her second marriage produced five children, including Martin. Van Buren spoke English as a second language, unlike any other president; his primary language in his youth was Dutch.

Van Buren received a basic education at the village schoolhouse and briefly studied Latin at the [[Kinderhook Academy]] and at [[Claverack College|Washington Seminary]] in Claverack. His formal education ended in 1796, when he began reading law at the office of [[Peter Silvester (1734–1808)|Peter Silvester]] and his son Francis, prominent [[Federalist Party]] attorneys in Kinderhook.{{sfn|Brooke|2010|p=230}} At his father's inn, Van Buren learned early to interact with people from varied ethnic, income, and societal groups, which he used to his advantage as a political organizer.

Van Buren was small in stature at 5ft 6in tall, and some referred to him as "Little Van". When he first began his legal studies, he often presented an unkempt appearance in rough, homespun clothing, and the Silvesters admonished him about how crucial a lawyer's clothing and personal appearance were to the success of his practice. He accepted their advice and patterned his clothing, appearance, bearing, and conduct after theirs.

Van Buren adopted the Democratic-Republican political leanings of his father, despite his association with the Silvesters and Kinderhook's strong affiliation with the Federalist Party. The Silvesters and Democratic-Republican political figure [[John Peter Van Ness]] suggested that Van Buren's political leanings constrained him to complete his education with a Democratic-Republican attorney, so he spent a final year of apprenticeship in the New York City office of John Van Ness's brother [[William P. Van Ness]], a political lieutenant of [[Aaron Burr]].{{sfn|Niven|1983|pp=10–11}} Van Ness introduced Van Buren to the intricacies of New York state politics, and Van Buren observed Burr's battles for control of the state Democratic-Republican party against [[George Clinton (vice president)|George Clinton]] and [[Robert R. Livingston (chancellor)|Robert R. Livingston]]. He returned to Kinderhook in 1803, after being admitted to the New York bar.

Van Buren married [[Hannah Van Buren|Hannah Hoes]] in [[Catskill, New York]], on February&nbsp;21, 1807, his childhood sweetheart and a daughter of his first cousin. Like Van Buren, she was raised in a Dutch home; she spoke primarily Dutch, and spoke English with a distinct accent. The couple had five children, four of whom lived to adulthood: [[Abraham Van Buren|Abraham]] (1807–1873), [[John Van Buren|John]] (1810–1866), Martin Jr. (1812–1855), Winfield Scott (born and died in 1814), and Smith Thompson (1817–1876).<ref name=MVinbrief/> Hannah contracted tuberculosis and died on February&nbsp;5, 1819, at age&nbsp;35,{{sfn|Silbey|2002|p=27}} and Van Buren never remarried.

==Early political career==
Upon returning to Kinderhook in 1803, Van Buren formed a law partnership with his half-brother, James Van Alen, and became financially secure enough to increase his focus on politics. Van Buren had been active in politics from age&nbsp;18, if not before. In 1801, he attended a [[Democratic-Republican Party]] convention in [[Troy, New York]] where he worked successfully to secure for John Peter Van Ness the party nomination in a special election for the [[New York's 6th congressional district|6th Congressional District]] seat.{{sfn|Brooke|2010|p=283}} Upon returning to Kinderhook, Van Buren broke with the Burr faction, becoming an ally of both [[DeWitt Clinton]] and [[Daniel D. Tompkins]]. After the faction led by Clinton and Tompkins dominated the 1807 elections, Van Buren was appointed [[Probate court|Surrogate]] of [[Columbia County, New York]].{{sfn|Niven|1983|pp=18–22}} Seeking to find a better base for his political and legal career, Van Buren and his family moved to the town of [[Hudson, New York|Hudson]], the seat of Columbia County, in 1808.{{sfn|Niven|1983|pp=23–24}} Van Buren's legal practice continued to flourish, and he traveled all over the state to represent various clients.

In 1812, Van Buren won his party's nomination for a seat in the [[New York State Senate]]. Though several Democratic-Republicans, including John Peter Van Ness, joined with the Federalists to oppose his candidacy, Van Buren won election to the state senate in mid-1812. Later in the year, the United States entered the [[War of 1812]] against Great Britain, while Clinton launched an unsuccessful bid to defeat President [[James Madison]] in the [[1812 United States presidential election|1812 presidential election]]. After the election, Van Buren became suspicious that Clinton was working with the Federalist Party, and he broke from his former political ally.

During the War of 1812, Van Buren worked with Clinton, Governor Tompkins, and [[Ambrose Spencer]] to support the Madison administration's prosecution of the war.{{sfn|Niven|1983|pp=41–42}} In addition, he was a special judge advocate appointed to serve as a prosecutor of [[William Hull]] during Hull's court-martial following the [[Siege of Detroit|surrender]] of [[Detroit, Michigan|Detroit]]. [Bud Hannings, The War of 1812: A Complete Chronology with Biographies of 63 General Officers, 2012. Great American Lawyers: An Encyclopedia, Volume 1] 

In the winter of 1814–1815, he collaborated with [[Winfield Scott]] on ways to reorganize the New York Militia in anticipation of another military campaign, but their work was halted by the end of the war in early 1815.<ref>{{cite book|last=Eisenhower|first=John S. D.|date=1997|title=Agent of Destiny: The Life and Times of General Winfield Scott|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vkVCQmU9nfYC&pg=PA101|location=Norman|publisher=University of Oklahoma Press|pages=100–101|isbn=9780806131283}}</ref> Van Buren was so favorably impressed by Scott that he named his fourth son after him.{{sfn|Niven|1983|p=43}} Van Buren's strong support for the war boosted his standing, and in 1815, he was elected to the position of [[New York Attorney General]]. Van Buren moved from Hudson to the state capital of [[Albany, New York|Albany]], where he established a legal partnership with [[Benjamin Franklin Butler (lawyer)|Benjamin Butler]], and shared a house with political ally [[Roger Skinner]]. In 1816, Van Buren won re-election to the state senate, and he would continue to simultaneously serve as both state senator and as the state's attorney general.

===Albany regency===
After Tompkins was elected as vice president in the [[1816 United States presidential election|1816 presidential election]], Clinton defeated Van Buren's preferred candidate, [[Peter Buell Porter]], in the [[New York gubernatorial election, 1817|1817 New York gubernatorial election]]. Clinton threw his influence behind the construction of the [[Erie Canal]], an ambitious project designed to connect [[Lake Erie]] to the [[Atlantic Ocean]].{{sfn|Niven|1983|pp=61–62}} Though many of Van Buren's allies urged him to block Clinton's Erie Canal bill, Van Buren believed that the canal would benefit the state. His support for the bill helped it win approval from the New York legislature.{{sfn|Niven|1983|pp=63–64}} Despite his support for the Erie Canal, Van Buren became the leader of an anti-Clintonian faction in New York known as the "[[Bucktails]]".

The Bucktails succeeded in emphasizing party loyalty and used it to capture and control many patronage posts throughout New York. Through his use of patronage, loyal newspapers, and connections with local party officials and leaders, Van Buren established what became known as the "[[Albany Regency]]", a [[political machine]] that emerged as an important factor in New York politics.{{sfn|Niven|1983|pp=64–65}} The Regency relied on a coalition of small farmers, but also enjoyed support from the [[Tammany Hall]] machine in New York City.{{sfn|Niven|1983|p=110}} Van Buren largely determined Tammany Hall's political policy for the Democratic-Republicans in this era.

A New York state referendum that expanded state voting rights to all white men in 1821, and which further increased the power of Tammany Hall, was guided by Van Buren. [Oliver E. Allen, The Tiger: The Rise and Fall of Tammany Hall, 1993] Although Governor Clinton remained in office until late 1822, Van Buren emerged as the leader of the state's Democratic-Republicans after the 1820 elections.{{sfn|Niven|1983|pp=81–82}} Van Buren was a member of the 1820 state [[constitutional convention (political meeting)|constitutional convention]], where he favored expanded voting rights, but opposed universal suffrage and tried to maintain property requirements for voting.[Keyssar|first=Alexander 2000 The Right to Vote: The Contested History of Democracy in the United States

===Entry into national politics===
In February 1821, the state legislature [[United States Senate election in New York, 1821|elected]] Van Buren to represent New York in the [[United States Senate]].{{sfn|Niven|1983|pp=92–93}} Van Buren arrived in Washington during the "[[Era of Good Feelings]]", a period in which partisan distinctions at the national level had faded.{{sfn|Wilson|1984|pp=26–27}} Van Buren quickly became a prominent figure in [[Washington, D.C.]], befriending Secretary of the Treasury [[William Harris Crawford]], among others. Though not an exceptional orator, Van Buren frequently engaged in debate on the Senate floor, usually after extensively researching the subject at hand. Despite his commitments as a father and state party leader, Van Buren remained closely engaged in his legislative duties, and during his time in the Senate he served as the chairman of the [[United States Senate Committee on Finance|Senate Finance Committee]] and the [[United States Senate Committee on the Judiciary|Senate Judiciary Committee]].{{sfn|Niven|1983|p=176}} As he gained renown, Van Buren earned monikers like "Little Magician" and "Sly Fox".

Van Buren chose to back Crawford over [[John Quincy Adams]], [[Andrew Jackson]], and [[Henry Clay]] in the [[1824 United States presidential election|presidential election of 1824]]. Crawford shared Van Buren's affinity for [[Jeffersonian democracy|Jeffersonian]] principles of [[states' rights]] and limited government, and Van Buren believed that Crawford was the ideal figure to lead a coalition of New York, Pennsylvania, and Virginia's "[[Richmond Junto]]".{{sfn|Niven|1983|pp=129–130}} Van Buren's support for Crawford aroused strong opposition in New York in the form of the People's party, which drew support from Clintonians, Federalists, and others opposed to Van Buren.{{sfn|Niven|1983|pp=139–140}} Nonetheless, Van Buren helped Crawford win the Democratic-Republican party's presidential nomination at the February 1824 [[congressional nominating caucus]]. The other Democratic-Republican candidates in the race refused to accept the poorly-attended caucus's decision, and as the Federalist Party had virtually ceased to function as a national party, the 1824 campaign became a competition among four candidates of the same party. Though Crawford suffered a severe [[stroke]] that left him in poor health, Van Buren continued to support his chosen candidate. Van Buren met with [[Thomas Jefferson]] in May&nbsp;1824 an attempt to bolster Crawford's candidacy, and though he was unsuccessful in gaining a public endorsement for Crawford, he nonetheless cherished the chance to meet with his political hero.

The 1824 elections dealt a severe blow to the Albany Regency, as Clinton returned to the governorship with the support of the People's party. By the time the state legislature convened to choose the state's [[Electoral College (United States)|presidential electors]], results from other states had made it clear that no individual would win a majority of the electoral vote, necessitating a [[contingent election]] in the [[United States House of Representatives]]. While Adams and Jackson were assured of finishing in the top three, and thus being eligible for selection in the contingent election, New York's electors would help determine whether Clay or Crawford would finish third. Though most of the state's electoral votes went to Adams, Crawford won one more electoral vote than Clay in the state, and Clay's defeat in Louisiana left Crawford in third place. With Crawford still in the running, Van Buren lobbied members of the House to support him. He hoped to engineer a Crawford victory on the second ballot of the contingent election, but Adams won on the first ballot with the help of Clay and [[Stephen Van Rensselaer]], a Congressman from New York. Despite his close ties with Van Buren, Van Rensselaer cast his vote for Adams, thus giving Adams a narrow majority of New York's delegation and a victory in the contingent election.{{sfn|Niven|1983|pp=158, 160–161}}

After the House contest, Van Buren shrewdly kept out of the controversy which followed, and began looking forward to 1828. Jackson was angered to see the presidency go to Adams despite having won more popular votes than he had, and he eagerly looked forward to a rematch.{{sfn|Silbey|2002|p=44}} Jackson's supporters accused Adams and Clay of having engaged in a "[[corrupt bargain]]" in which Clay helped Adams win the contingent election in return for Clay's appointment as [[United States Secretary of State|Secretary of State]].{{sfn|Niven|1983|pp=164–165}} Always notably courteous in his treatment of opponents, Van Buren showed no bitterness toward either Adams or Clay, and he voted to confirm Clay's nomination to the cabinet.<ref>{{cite book|last=Shea|first=M. V., editor-in-chief|date=1920|title=The World Book Encyclopedia, Volume 10|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4OJTAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA6026|publisher=W. F. Quarrie & Co.|page=6026}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Stoddard|first= William Osborn|date=1887|title=Andrew Jackson and Martin Van Buren|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Np4SAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA284|publisher=Frederick A. Stokes|page=284}}</ref> At the same time, Van Buren opposed the Adams-Clay plans for [[internal improvements]] like roads and canals and declined to support U.S. participation in the [[Congress of Panama]].{{sfn|Cole|1984|p=111}} Van Buren considered Adams's proposals to represent a return to the [[Alexander Hamilton|Hamiltonian]] economic model favored by Federalists, which he strongly opposed.{{sfn|Niven|1983|pp=163–164}} Despite his opposition to Adams's public policies, Van Buren was able to easily secure re-election in his own divided home state in 1827.{{sfn|Niven|1983|pp=177–178}}

===1828 elections===
Van Buren's overarching goal at the national level was to restore a two-party system with party cleavages based on philosophical differences, and he viewed the old divide between Federalists and Democratic-Republicans as the best state of affairs for the nation.{{sfn|Wilson|1984|pp=27–28}} Van Buren believed that these national parties helped ensure that elections were decided on national, rather than sectional or local, issues; as he put it, "party attachment in former times furnished a complete antidote for sectional prejudices". After the 1824 election, Van Buren was initially somewhat skeptical of Jackson, who had not taken strong positions on most policy issues. Nonetheless, he settled on Jackson as the one candidate who could beat Adams in the [[1828 United States presidential election|1828 presidential election]], and he worked to bring Crawford's former backers into line behind Jackson.

He also forged alliances with other members of Congress opposed to Adams, including Vice President [[John C. Calhoun]], Senator [[Thomas Hart Benton (politician)|Thomas Hart Benton]], and Senator [[John Randolph of Roanoke|John Randolph]].{{sfn|Niven|1983|pp=178–181}} Seeking to solidify his own standing in New York and bolster Jackson's campaign, Van Buren helped arrange the passage of the [[Tariff of Abominations|Tariff of 1828]], which opponents labeled as the "Tariff of Abominations". The tariff satisfied many who sought [[Protectionism|protection]] from foreign competition, but angered Southern cotton interests and New Englanders.{{sfn|Niven|1983|pp=196–199}} Because Van Buren believed that the South would never support Adams, and New England would never support Jackson, he was willing to alienate both regions through passage of the tariff.{{sfn|Niven|1983|p=201}}

Meanwhile, Clinton's death from a heart attack in 1828 dramatically shook up the politics of Van Buren's home state, while the [[Anti-Masonic Party]] emerged as an increasingly important factor.{{sfn|Niven|1983|pp=194–196}} After some initial reluctance, Van Buren chose to run for Governor of New York in the [[New York gubernatorial election, 1828|1828 election]].{{sfn|Niven|1983|pp=202–203, 209}} Hoping that a Jackson victory would lead to his own elevation to Secretary of State or Secretary of the Treasury, Van Buren chose [[Enos T. Throop]] as his running mate and preferred successor.{{sfn|Niven|1983|p=209}} Van Buren's candidacy was aided by the split between supporters of Adams, who had adopted the label of [[National Republicans]], and the Anti-Masonic Party.{{sfn|Niven|1983|pp=206–208}}

Reflecting his public association with Jackson, Van Buren accepted the gubernatorial nomination on a ticket that called itself "Jacksonian-Democrat".{{sfn|Niven|1983|p=211}} He campaigned on local as well as national issues, emphasizing his opposition to the policies of the Adams administration.{{sfn|Niven|1983|pp=211–212}} Van Buren ran ahead of Jackson, winning the state by 30,000&nbsp;votes compared to a margin of 5,000 for Jackson.{{sfn|Niven|1983|pp=214–215}} Nationally, Jackson defeated Adams by a wide margin, winning nearly every state outside of New England.{{sfn|Wilson|1984|p=9}} After the election, Van Buren resigned from the Senate to start his term as governor, which began on January&nbsp;1, 1829.<ref>{{cite book|last=Benjamin|first=Gerald|date=2012|title=The Oxford Handbook of New York State Government and Politics|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=l3AnAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA322|publisher=Oxford University Press|page=322|isbn=9780199996353}}</ref> While his term as governor was short, he did manage to pass the Bank Safety Fund Law, an early form of deposit insurance, through the legislature.<ref>{{cite book|last=Neu|first=Irene D.|date=1960|title=Erastus Corning: Merchant and Financier, 1794–1872|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jEDlH_ryLw4C&pg=PA91|publisher=Cornell University Press|page=91|isbn=0801476453}}</ref> He also appointed several key supporters, including [[William L. Marcy]] and [[Silas Wright]], to important state positions.{{sfn|Niven|1983|pp=218–219}}

==Jackson administration==

===Secretary of State===
{{Further|Petticoat affair|Presidency of Andrew Jackson}}
[[File: Floride Calhoun nee Colhoun.jpg|thumb|Mrs Floride Calhoun, a leader of the "petticoats"]]
In February 1829, Jackson wrote to Van Buren to ask him to become Secretary of State.{{sfn|Niven|1983|p=228}} Van Buren quickly agreed, and he resigned as governor the following month; his tenure of forty-three days is the shortest amount of time served by any Governor of New York.{{sfn|Niven|1983|pp=229–231}} No serious diplomatic crises arose during Van Buren's tenure as Secretary of State, but he achieved several notable successes, such as settling long-standing claims against France and winning reparations for property that had been seized during the [[Napoleonic Wars]]. He reached an agreement with the British to open trade with the [[British West Indies]] colonies and concluded a treaty with the [[Ottoman Empire]] that gained American merchants access to the [[Black Sea]]. Items on which he did not achieve success included settling the [[Maine]]-[[New Brunswick]] boundary dispute with Great Britain, gaining settlement of the U.S. claim to the [[Oregon Country]], concluding a commercial treaty with [[Russia]], and persuading [[Mexico]] to sell [[Texas]].{{sfn|Cole|1984|p=203}}<ref name=MVB>{{cite web|url=https://history.state.gov/departmenthistory/people/van-buren-martin|title=Martin Van Buren|website=Biographies of the Secretaries of State|publisher=U.S. Department of State, Office of the Historian|accessdate=November 8, 2014}}</ref>

In addition to his foreign policy duties, Van Buren quickly emerged as an important adviser to Jackson on major domestic issues like the tariff and internal improvements.{{sfn|Niven|1983|pp=250–252}} The Secretary of State was instrumental in convincing Jackson to issue the [[Maysville Road veto]], which both reaffirmed limited government principles and also helped prevent the construction of infrastructure projects that could potentially compete with New York's Erie Canal.{{sfn|Niven|1983|pp=261–262}} He also became involved in a power struggle with Calhoun over appointments and other issues, including the [[Petticoat Affair]].{{sfn|Niven|1983|pp=245–247}} The Petticoat Affair arose because [[Peggy Eaton]], wife of [[United States Secretary of War|Secretary of War]] [[John H. Eaton]], was ostracized by the other cabinet wives due to circumstances surrounding her marriage.<ref>{{cite book|last=Heller III|first=J. Roderick|date=2010|title=Democracy's Lawyer: Felix Grundy of the Old Southwest|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=u8mM8D9RVu4C&pg=PA177|publisher=Louisiana State University Press|page=177|isbn=9780807137420}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Cheathem|first1=Mark Renfred|last2=Mancall|first2=Peter C.|date=2008|title=Jacksonian and Antebellum Age: People and Perspectives|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1wjCVfr4oxUC&pg=PA30|publisher=ABC-CLIO, Inc.|page=30|isbn=9781598840179}}</ref>

Led by [[Floride Calhoun]], wife of Vice President Calhoun, the other cabinet wives refused to pay courtesy calls to the Eatons, receive them as visitors, or invite them to social events.<ref>{{cite book|last=Manweller|first=Mathew|title=Chronology of the U.S. Presidency|volume=1|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uqB3ehA7M0oC&pg=PA232|location=Santa Barbara|publisher=ABC-CLIO|page=232|isbn=9781598846454|year=2012}}</ref> As a widower, Van Buren was unaffected by the position of the cabinet wives.<ref>{{cite book|last=Cheathem|first=Mark R.|date=2015|title=Andrew Jackson and the Rise of the Democrats: A Reference Guide|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eXq1BgAAQBAJ&pg=PA131|location=Santa Barbara|publisher=ABC-CLIO|page=131|isbn=9781610694063}}</ref> Van Buren at first sought to conciliate the divide in the cabinet, but most of the leading citizens in Washington continued to snub the Eatons.{{sfn|Niven|1983|pp=249–253}} Jackson was personally close to Eaton, and he came to the conclusion that the allegations against Eaton arose from a plot against his administration led by Henry Clay.{{sfn|Niven|1983|pp=249, 253}} The Petticoat Affair, combined with a contentious debate over the tariff and Calhoun's decade-old criticisms of Jackson's actions in the [[First Seminole War]], contributed to a split between Jackson and Calhoun.{{sfn|Wilson|1984|pp=9–10}} As the debate over the tariff and the proposed ability of South Carolina to [[Nullification (U.S. Constitution)|nullify]] federal law consumed Washington, Van Buren increasingly emerged as Jackson's likely successor.{{sfn|Niven|1983|p=266}}

The Petticoat affair was finally resolved when Van Buren offered to resign; in April 1831, Jackson accepted, and took the opportunity to reorganize his cabinet by asking for the resignations of the cabinet members.<ref>{{cite book|last=Watson|first=Robert P.|date=2012|title=Affairs of State: The Untold History of Presidential Love, Sex, and Scandal, 1789–1900|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=A6LRVg0kn28C&pg=PA196|location=Lanham|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield|page=196|isbn=9781442218345}}</ref> Postmaster General [[William T. Barry]], who had sided with the Eatons in the Petticoat Affair, was the lone cabinet member to remain in office.<ref>{{cite book|last=Watson|first=Harry L.|date=2006|title=Liberty and Power: The Politics of Jacksonian America|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SL3ZDX7ykqUC&pg=PA125|location=New York|publisher=Hill & Wang|page=125|isbn=9780809065479}}</ref> The cabinet reorganization removed Calhoun's allies from the Jackson administration, and Van Buren had a major role in shaping the new cabinet.{{sfn|Niven|1983|pp=266, 269–270}} After leaving office, Van Buren continued to play a part in the [[Kitchen Cabinet]], Jackson's informal circle of advisers.<ref>{{cite book |last=Manweller |first=Mathew|date=2012 |title=Chronology of the U.S. Presidency |volume=1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uqB3ehA7M0oC&pg=PA246 |location=Santa Barbara|publisher=ABC-CLIO |page=246 |isbn=9781598846461}}</ref>

===Vice-presidency===
In August 1831, Jackson gave Van Buren a [[recess appointment]] as the [[United States Ambassador to the United Kingdom|ambassador to Britain]], and Van Buren arrived in London in September.<ref>{{cite book |last= Shepard |first= Edward Shepard |date= 1899 |title= American Statesmen: Martin Van Buren |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=SEVHrdmXiFMC&pg=PA224 |publisher= Houghton, Mifflin & Co. |page= 224}}</ref> He was cordially received, but in February&nbsp;1832, he learned his nomination had been rejected by the Senate.<ref>{{cite book |last= Polk |first= James Knox |date= 1886 |title= Correspondence of James K. Polk: January–June 1845 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=wxmLh0gDfSoC&pg=PA357 |publisher= University of Tennessee Press |page= 357|isbn= 9780870499470 }}</ref> The rejection of Van Buren was essentially the work of Calhoun.{{sfn|Cole|1984|p=124}} When the vote on Van Buren's nomination was taken, enough pro-Calhoun Jacksonians refrained from voting to produce a tie, thus giving Calhoun, in his role as presiding officer, the ability to cast the deciding vote against Van Buren.<ref>{{cite book |last= Risjord |first= Norman K. |date= 2001 |title= Representative Americans: The Romantics |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=gIwySAwf6DUC&pg=PA42 |publisher= Rowman & Littlefield |page= 42|isbn= 9780742520837 }}</ref>

Calhoun was elated, convinced that he had ended Van Buren's career. "It will kill him dead, sir, kill him dead. He will never kick, sir, never kick", Calhoun exclaimed to a friend.<ref>{{cite book |last= Howe |first= Daniel Walker |date= 2007 |title= What Hath God Wrought: The Transformation of America, 1815–1848 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=0XIvPDF9ijcC&pg=PA378 |publisher= Oxford University Press |page= 378|isbn= 9780199743797 }}</ref> Calhoun's move backfired; by making Van Buren appear the victim of petty politics, Calhoun raised Van Buren in both Jackson's regard and the esteem of others in the Democratic Party. Far from ending Van Buren's career, Calhoun's action gave greater impetus to Van Buren's candidacy for vice president.<ref>{{cite book |last= Haynes |first= Stan M. |date= 2012 |title= The First American Political Conventions: Transforming Presidential Nominations, 1832–1872|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=mSud-fdhUnkC&pg=PA34 |publisher= McFarland & Company, Inc. |page= 34}}</ref>

[[File:Francis Alexander - Martin Van Buren - Google Art Project.jpg|thumb|left|A painting of Van Buren by [[Francis Alexander]], c. 1830]]

Seeking to ensure that Van Buren would replace Calhoun as his running mate, Jackson had arranged for a national convention of his supporters.{{sfn|Wilson|1984|pp=10–11}} The May&nbsp;[[1832 Democratic National Convention]] subsequently nominated Van Buren to serve as the party's vice presidential nominee.{{sfn|Silbey|2002|pp=81–82}} Van Buren won the nomination over [[Philip Pendleton Barbour]] (Calhoun's favored candidate) and [[Richard Mentor Johnson]] due to the support of Jackson and the strength of the Albany Regency.{{sfn|Niven|1983|pp=300–301}} Upon Van Buren's return from Europe in July&nbsp;1832, he became involved in the [[Bank War]], a struggle over the re-charter of the [[Second Bank of the United States]].{{sfn|Niven|1983|pp=301–303}}

Van Buren had long been distrustful of banks, and he viewed the Bank as an extension of the Hamiltonian economic program, so he supported Jackson's veto of the Bank's re-charter.{{sfn|Niven|1983|pp=303, 306–307}} Henry Clay, the presidential nominee of the National Republicans, made the struggle over the Bank the key issue of the [[U.S. presidential election, 1832|presidential election of 1832]].{{sfn|Niven|1983|pp=307–308}} The Jackson–Van Buren ticket won the 1832 election by a landslide,<ref>{{cite book |last= Murrin |first= John |date= 2009 |title= Liberty, Equality, Power: Enhanced Concise Edition |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=1w5Qp4qYfE0C&pg=PA327 |publisher= Thomson Wadsworth |page= 327}}</ref> and Van Buren took office as vice president in March&nbsp;1833.<ref>{{cite book |last= Holland |first= William M. |date= 1836 |title= The Life and Political Opinions of Martin Van Buren, Vice President of the United States |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=2s1cI5uNNZQC&pg=PA344 |publisher= Belknap & Hammersley |page= 344}}</ref> During the [[Nullification Crisis]], Van Buren counseled Jackson to pursue a policy of conciliation with South Carolina leaders.{{sfn|Niven|1983|pp=321–322}} He played little direct role in the passage of the [[Tariff of 1833]], but he quietly hoped that the tariff would help bring an end to the Nullification Crisis, which it did.{{sfn|Niven|1983|p=328}}

During his time in office, Van Buren continued to be one of Jackson's primary advisors and confidants, and accompanied Jackson on his tour of the northeastern United States in 1833.<ref>{{cite book |last= Purcell |first= L. Edward |date= 2010 |title= Vice Presidents: A Biographical Dictionary |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=zq3-BuDVQfMC&pg=PA81 |publisher= Facts on File, Inc. |page= 81}}</ref> Jackson's struggle with the Second Bank of the United States continued, as the president sought to remove federal funds from the Bank.{{sfn|Niven|1983|pp=330–332}} Though at first apprehensive of the removal due to congressional support for the Bank, Van Buren eventually came to support Jackson's policy.{{sfn|Niven|1983|pp=330–334}} He also helped undermine a fledgling alliance between Jackson and [[Daniel Webster]], a senator from Massachusetts who could have potentially threatened Van Buren's project to create two parties separated by policy differences rather than personalities.{{sfn|Niven|1983|pp=355–358}} During Jackson's second term, the president's supporters began to refer to themselves as members of the Democratic Party. Meanwhile, those opposed to Jackson, including Clay's National Republicans, followers of Calhoun, and many members of the Anti-Masonic Party, coalesced into the [[Whig Party (United States)|Whig Party]].{{sfn|Wilson|1984|pp=14–15}}

===Presidential election of 1836===
{{Main|United States presidential election, 1836}}
President [[Andrew Jackson]] declined to seek another term in the [[1836 United States presidential election|1836 presidential election]], but he remained influential within the [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic Party]] as his second term came to an end. Jackson was determined to help elect Van Buren in 1836 so that the latter could continue the Jackson administration's policies.<ref>{{cite book |last= Bathory |first= Peter Dennis |date= 2001 |title= Friends and Citizens: Essays in Honor of Wilson Carey McWilliams |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OJMkZbZFLqMC&pg=PA91 |publisher= Rowman & Littlefield |page=91}}</ref> With Jackson's support, Van Buren won the presidential nomination of the [[1835 Democratic National Convention]] without opposition.<ref name=JRIrelan>{{cite web |title=History of the Life, Administration and Times of Martin Van Buren, Eighth President of the United States |last=Irelan |first=John Robert |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_g4_AQAAMAAJ&pg=PA3
|publisher=Fairbanks and Palmer Publishing Company |location=Chicago |year=1887 |page=230 |accessdate=March 6, 2017}}</ref> Two names were put forward for the vice-presidential nomination: Representative [[Richard M. Johnson]] of Kentucky, and former Senator [[William Cabell Rives]] of Virginia. Southern Democrats, and Van Buren himself, strongly preferred Rives. Jackson, on the other hand, strongly preferred Johnson. Again, Jackson's considerable influence prevailed, and Johnson received the required two-thirds vote after New York Senator [[Silas Wright]] prevailed upon non-delegate Edward Rucker to cast the 15 votes of the absent Tennessee delegation in Johnson's favor.<ref name=RMJ9th>{{cite web |title=Richard Mentor Johnson, 9th Vice President (1837–1841) |url=https://www.senate.gov/artandhistory/history/common/generic/VP_Richard_M_Johnson.htm |publisher=United States Senate, Office of the Historian |location=Washington|accessdate=March 7, 2017}}</ref><ref name=JRIrelan/>

[[File:ElectoralCollege1836.svg|thumb|upright=1.2|1836 electoral vote results]]

Van Buren's competitors in the [[1836 United States presidential election|election of 1836]] were three members of the Whig Party, which remained a loose coalition bound by mutual opposition to Jackson's anti-bank policies. Lacking the party unity or organizational strength to field a single ticket or define a single platform,<ref name=RMJ9th/> the Whigs ran several regional candidates in hopes of sending the election to the House of Representatives.<ref>{{cite book |last= Nelson |first= Michael |date= 2013 |title= Guide to the Presidency and the Executive Branch |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=4iNzAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1962 |publisher= CQ Press |page= 1962|isbn= 9781452234281}}</ref> The three candidates were: [[Hugh Lawson White]] of Tennessee, Daniel Webster of Massachusetts, and [[William Henry Harrison]] of Indiana. Besides endorsing [[internal improvements]] and a national bank, the Whigs tried to tie Democrats to [[Abolitionism in the United States|abolitionism]] and sectional tension, and attacked Jackson for "acts of aggression and usurpation of power".<ref name=preselections>{{cite web |url=http://www.history.com/topics/us-presidents/presidential-elections|title=Presidential Elections |website=history.com |publisher=A+E Networks |accessdate=March 7, 2017}}</ref>

Southern voters represented the biggest potential impediment in Van Buren's quest for the presidency, as many were suspicious of a Northern president.{{sfn|Wilson|1984|pp=17–18}} Van Buren moved to obtain the support of southerners by assuring them that he opposed abolitionism and supported the maintaining of slavery in states where it had already existed.<ref>{{cite book |last= Howe |first= Daniel Walker |date= 2007 |title= What Hath God Wrought: The Transformation of America, 1815–1848 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=0XIvPDF9ijcC&pg=PA509 |publisher= Oxford University Press |pages= 508–509|isbn= 9780199743797 }}</ref> To demonstrate consistency regarding his opinions on slavery, Van Buren cast the tie-breaking Senate vote in favor of a bill to subject abolitionist mail to state laws, thus ensuring that its circulation would be prohibited in the South.<ref>{{cite web |url= https://www.senate.gov/artandhistory/history/common/generic/VP_Martin_VanBuren.htm |title= Martin Van Buren, 8th Vice President (1833–1837) |publisher= United States Senate, Office of the Historian |location=Washington|accessdate= November 8, 2014}}</ref> Van Buren personally considered slavery to be immoral, but sanctioned by the Constitution.<ref>{{cite book |last=Singer |first=Alan J. |date=2008 |title= New York and Slavery: Time to Teach the Truth |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=FPu_UBY0pjYC&pg=PA80 |location=Albany |publisher=State University of New York Press |page=80 |isbn=9780791475096}}</ref>

Van Buren won the election with 764,198 popular votes, 50.9% of the total, and 170&nbsp;[[electoral College (United States)|electoral votes]]. Harrison led the Whigs with 73&nbsp;electoral votes, White receiving 26, and Webster&nbsp;14.<ref name=preselections/> [[Willie Person Mangum]] received South Carolina's 11 electoral votes, which were awarded by the state legislature.{{sfn|Howe|2007|p=487}} Van Buren's victory resulted from a combination of his own attractive political and personal qualities, Jackson's popularity and endorsement, the organizational power of the Democratic party, and the inability of the Whig Party to muster an effective candidate and campaign.<ref name=MVelections>{{cite web | url=https://millercenter.org/president/vanburen/campaigns-and-elections | title=Martin Van Buren: Campaigns and Elections| publisher=Miller Center of Public Affairs, University of Virginia|accessdate=March 7, 2017}}</ref> Virginia's presidential electors voted for Van Buren for president, but voted for [[William Smith (South Carolina senator)|William Smith]] for vice president, leaving Johnson one electoral vote short of election.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/the-fix/wp/2016/08/03/how-a-faithless-elector-in-georgia-could-cost-donald-trump-an-electoral-college-vote-explained/?noredirect=on|title=How a 'faithless elector' in Georgia could cost Donald Trump an electoral college vote |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |last=Blake |first=Aaron |date=August 3, 2016}}</ref> In accordance with the [[Twelfth Amendment to the United States Constitution|Twelfth Amendment]], the Senate elected Johnson vice president in a contingent vote.<ref>{{cite web|title=The one election where Faithless Electors made a difference |date=December 19, 2016 |last=Bomboy |first=Scott |url=http://blog.constitutioncenter.org/2016/12/the-one-election-where-faithless-electors-made-a-difference/ |work=Constitution Daily |publisher=The National Constitution Center |location=Philadelphia |accessdate=March 7, 2017}}</ref>

The election of 1836 marked an important turning point in American political history because it saw the establishment of the [[Second Party System]]. In the early 1830s, the political party structure was still changing, rapidly, and factional and personal leaders continued to play a major role in politics. By the end of the campaign of 1836, the new party system was almost complete, as nearly every faction had been absorbed by either the Democrats or the Whigs.{{sfn|Cole|1984|p=279}}

==Presidency, 1837–1841==
{{Main|Presidency of Martin Van Buren}}

===Cabinet===
{{Infobox U.S. Cabinet
|align=right
|Name=Van Buren
|President=Martin Van Buren
|President start=1837
|President end=1841
|Vice President=[[Richard Mentor Johnson]]
|Vice President start=1837
|Vice President end=1841
|State=[[John Forsyth (politician)|John Forsyth]]
|State start=1837
|State end=1841
|War=[[Joel R. Poinsett]]
|War start=1837
|War end=1841
|Treasury=[[Levi Woodbury]]
|Treasury start=1837
|Treasury end=1841
|Justice=[[Benjamin Franklin Butler (lawyer)|Benjamin Butler]]
|Justice start=1837
|Justice end=1838
|Justice 2=[[Felix Grundy]]
|Justice start 2=1838
|Justice end 2=1840
|Justice 3=[[Henry D. Gilpin]]
|Justice start 3=1840
|Justice end 3=1841
|Post=[[Amos Kendall]]
|Post start=1837
|Post end=1840
|Post 2=[[John M. Niles]]
|Post start 2=1840
|Post end 2=1841
|Navy=[[Mahlon Dickerson]]
|Navy start=1837
|Navy end=1838
|Navy 2=[[James K. Paulding]]
|Navy start 2=1838
|Navy end 2=1841
}}

Van Buren retained much of Jackson's cabinet and lower-level appointees, as he hoped that the retention of Jackson's appointees would stop Whig momentum in the South and restore confidence in the Democrats as a party of sectional unity.{{sfn|Nowlan|2012|p=320}} The cabinet holdovers represented the different regions of the country: Secretary of the Treasury [[Levi Woodbury]] came from New England, Attorney General [[Benjamin F. Butler]] and Secretary of the Navy [[Mahlon Dickerson]] hailed from mid-Atlantic states, Secretary of State [[John Forsyth (Georgia)|John Forsyth]] represented the South, and Postmaster General [[Amos Kendall]] of Kentucky represented the West.

For the lone open position of Secretary of War, Van Buren first approached William Cabell Rives, who had sought the vice presidency in 1836. After Rives declined to join the cabinet, Van Buren appointed [[Joel Roberts Poinsett]], a South Carolinian who had opposed secession during the [[Nullification Crisis]]. Van Buren's cabinet choices were criticized by Pennsylvanians such as [[James Buchanan]], who argued that their state deserved a cabinet position as well as some Democrats who argued that Van Buren should have used his patronage powers to augment his own power. However, Van Buren saw value in avoiding contentious patronage battles, and his decision to retain Jackson's cabinet made it clear that he intended to continue the policies of his predecessor. Additionally, Van Buren had helped select Jackson's cabinet appointees and enjoyed strong working relationships with them.{{sfn|Wilson|1984|pp=37–40}}

Van Buren held regular formal cabinet meetings and discontinued the informal gatherings of advisers that had attracted so much attention during Jackson's presidency. He solicited advice from department heads, tolerated open and even frank exchanges between cabinet members, perceiving himself as "a mediator, and to some extent an umpire between the conflicting opinions" of his counselors. Such detachment allowed the president to reserve judgment and protect his own prerogative for making final decisions. These open discussions gave cabinet members a sense of participation and made them feel part of a functioning entity, rather than isolated executive agents.{{sfn|Nowlan|2012|p=321}} Van Buren was closely involved in foreign affairs and matters pertaining to the Treasury Department, but the Post Office, War Department, and Navy Department all had possessed high levels of autonomy under their respective cabinet secretaries.{{sfn|Wilson|1984|p=171}}

===Panic of 1837===
When Van Buren entered office, the nation's economic health had taken a turn for the worse and the prosperity of the early 1830s was over. Two months into his presidency, on May&nbsp;10, 1837, some important state banks in New York, running out of hard currency reserves, refused to convert paper money into gold or silver, and other financial institutions throughout the nation quickly followed suit. This [[financial crisis]] would become known as the [[Panic of 1837]]. The Panic was followed by a five-year [[Depression (economics)|depression]] in which banks failed and [[unemployment]] reached record highs.<ref>W. J. Rorabaugh, Donald T. Critchlow, Paula C. Baker (2004). "''[https://books.google.com/books?id=VL_6X5zWOokC&pg=PA210&dq=PA349&dq&hl=en#v=onepage&q=&f=false America's promise: a concise history of the United States]''". Rowman & Littlefield. p. 210. {{ISBN|0742511898}}</ref>

Van Buren blamed the economic collapse on greedy American and foreign business and financial institutions, as well as the over-extension of credit by U.S. banks. Whig leaders in Congress blamed the Democrats, along with Andrew Jackson's economic policies, specifically his 1836 [[Specie Circular]]. Cries of "rescind the circular!" went up and former president Jackson sent word to Van Buren asking him not to rescind the order, believing that it had to be given enough time to work. Others, like [[Nicholas Biddle (banker)|Nicholas Biddle]], believed that Jackson's [[Bank War#Jackson's dismantling of the BUS|dismantling of the Bank of the United States]] was directly responsible for the irresponsible creation of paper money by the state banks which had precipitated this panic.<ref name="Seigenthaler">{{cite book|last1=Seigenthaler|first1=John |last2=Schlesinger Jr. |first2=Arthur Meier |title=James K Polk|publisher=Macmillen|year=2004|pages=58–60|isbn=9780805069426}}</ref> The Panic of 1837 loomed large over the [[United States elections, 1838|1838 election cycle]], as the carryover effects of the economic downturn led to Whig gains in both the U.S. House and Senate. The state elections in 1837 and 1838 were also disastrous for the Democrats,<ref>{{cite book |last=Leonard |first=Gerald |date=2002 |title=The Invention of Party Politics: Federalism, Popular Sovereignty, and Constitutional Development in Jacksonian Illinois |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=d89FAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA177 |location=Chapel Hill|publisher=University of North Carolina Press |page=177 |isbn=9780807827444}}</ref> and the partial economic recovery in 1838 was offset by a second commercial crisis later that year.<ref>{{cite book |last=Churella |first=Albert J. |date=2013 |title=The Pennsylvania Railroad: Building an Empire, 1846–1917 |volume=1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OXdjEZke74QC&pg=PA69 |location=Philadelphia|publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press |page=69 |isbn=9780812207620}}</ref>

To deal with the crisis, the Whigs proposed rechartering the [[History of central banking in the United States|national bank]]. The president countered by proposing the establishment of an [[Independent Treasury|independent U.S. treasury]], which he contended would take the politics out of the nation's money supply. Under the plan, the government would hold all of its money balances in the form of [[Hard money (policy)|gold or silver]], and would be restricted from printing [[Banknote|paper money]] at will; both measures were designed to prevent [[inflation]].<ref>{{cite book|title=Exploring American History: From Colonial Times to 1877|volume=10|editor1-last=Lansford|editor1-first=Tom|editor2-last=Woods|editor2-first=Thomas E.|date=2008|publisher=Marshall Cavendish|location=New York|isbn=9780761477587|url=https://books.google.com/?id=02K5EYvo5loC&pg=PA1047&lpg=PA1047&dq=Van+Buren+neutral+Canada#v=onepage&q=Van%20Buren%20neutral%20Canada&f=false|page=1046}}</ref> The plan would permanently separate the government from private banks by storing government funds in government vaults rather than in private banks.{{sfn|Wilson|1984|pp=58–62}} Van Buren announced his proposal in September&nbsp;1837,<ref name=MBdomestic/> but an alliance of conservative Democrats and Whigs prevented it from becoming law until 1840.<ref name=Morrison456>{{cite book | last = Morison | first = Samuel Eliot | authorlink = Samuel Eliot Morison | title = The Oxford History of the American People | year = 1965 | publisher = Oxford University Press | location = New York | page=456}}</ref> As the debate continued, conservative Democrats like Rives defected to the Whig Party, which itself grew more unified in its opposition to Van Buren.{{sfn|Wilson|1984|pp=61–62}} The Whigs would abolish the Independent Treasury system in 1841, but it was revived in 1846, and remained in place until the passage of the [[Federal Reserve Act]] in 1913.{{sfn|Wilson|1984|p=210}} More important for Van Buren's immediate future, the depression would be a major issue in his upcoming re-election campaign.<ref name=MBdomestic/>

===Indian removal===
Federal policy under Jackson had sought to move Indian tribes to lands west of the [[Mississippi River]] through the [[Indian Removal Act of 1830]], and the federal government negotiated 19&nbsp;treaties with Indian tribes in the course of Van Buren's presidency.<ref name=MVforcebehind>{{cite web|title=Martin Van Buren: The Force Behind the Trail of Tears|url=https://indiancountrymedianetwork.com/history/events/martin-van-buren-the-force-behind-the-trail-of-tears/|last=Landry|first=Alysa Landry|date=February 23, 2016|publisher=Indian Country Media Network|location=Verona|accessdate=March 16, 2017}}</ref> The 1835 [[Treaty of New Echota]] signed by government officials and representatives of the [[Cherokee]] tribe had established terms under which the Cherokees ceded their territory in the southeast and agreed to move west to [[Oklahoma]]. In 1838, Van Buren directed General [[Winfield Scott]] to forcibly move all those who had not yet complied with the treaty.<ref>{{cite book |last= Sturgis |first=Amy H. |date=2006 |title=The Trail of Tears and Indian Removal |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xyS9GtYci7IC&pg=PA39 |publisher=Greenwood |page= 39|isbn=9780313336584}}</ref>

The Cherokees were herded violently into internment camps where they were kept for the summer of 1838. The actual transportation west was delayed by intense heat and drought, but they were forcibly marched west in the fall. Under the treaty, the government was supposed to provide wagons, rations, and even medical doctors, but it did not.<ref>{{Cite book|title = Cherokee Removal: Before and After|last = Anderson|first = William|publisher = University of Georgia Press|year = 1991|isbn = 0820312541|location = Athens, Georgia|pages = }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url = http://www.history.com/topics/native-american-history/trail-of-tears|title = Trail of Tears|date = 2014|accessdate = October 27, 2014|website =history.com|publisher = A&E Television Networks}}</ref> Some 20,000&nbsp;people were relocated against their will during the Cherokee removal, part of the [[Trail of Tears]].<ref name=newnetherland>{{cite web|title=Martin van Buren [1782–1862]|url=http://www.newnetherlandinstitute.org/history-and-heritage/dutch_americans/buren-martin-van/|publisher=New Netherland Institute|location=Albany|accessdate=March 10, 2017}}</ref> Notably, [[Ralph Waldo Emerson]], who would go on to become America's foremost man of letters, wrote Van Buren [[Emerson's letter to Martin Van Buren|a letter]] protesting his treatment of the Cherokee.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Emerson: Political Writings|last=Sacks|first=Kenneth S.|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2008|isbn=9780521883696|page=xxii}}</ref>

[[File:Seminole War in Everglades.jpg|thumb|A United States Marine Corps boat expedition searching the [[Everglades]] during the Second Seminole War]]

The administration also contended with the [[Seminole]] Indians, who engaged the army in a prolonged conflict known as the [[Second Seminole War]].<ref name=MVforcebehind/> Prior to leaving office, Jackson put General [[Thomas Jesup]] in command of all military troops in Florida to force Seminole emigration to the West.<ref>{{cite book|last=Jahoda|first=Gloria|title=The Trail of Tears: The Story of the American Indian Removals, 1813–1855|publisher=Holt, Rinehart and Winston|location=New York|date=1975|isbn=0-03-014871-5}}</ref> Forts were established throughout the Indian territory, and mobile columns of soldiers scoured the countryside, and many Seminoles offered to surrender, including Chief [[Micanopy]]. The Seminoles slowly gathered for emigration near Tampa, but in June they fled the detention camps, driven off by disease and the presence of slave catchers who were hoping to capture Black Seminoles.<ref name=MissallMissall>{{cite web|last1=Missall|first1=John|last2=Missall|first2=Mary Lou|title=History of the Seminole Wars|date=2016|url=http://www.missall.net/thewars.html|accessdate=March 8, 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Removal Aftershock: The Seminoles' Struggles to Survive in the West, 1836–1866|last=Lancaster|first=Jane F.|date=1994|page=[https://archive.org/details/removalaftershoc0000lanc/page/18 18]|publisher=University of Tennessee Press|location=Knoxville|isbn=0-87049-845-2|url=https://archive.org/details/removalaftershoc0000lanc/page/18}}</ref>

In December 1837, Jesup began a massive offensive, culminating in the [[Battle of Lake Okeechobee]], and the war entered a new phase of attrition.<ref name=MissallMissall/> During this time, the government realized that it would be almost impossible to drive the remaining Seminoles from Florida, so Van Buren sent General [[Alexander Macomb (general)|Alexander Macomb]] to negotiate peace with them. It was the only time that an Indian tribe had forced the government to sue for peace. An agreement was reached allowing the Seminoles to remain in southwest Florida, but the peace was shattered in July&nbsp;1839 and was not restored until 1842, after Van Buren had left office.<ref name=MissallMissall/><ref>{{cite book |last= Hauptman |first= Laurence M. |date= 1999 |title= Conspiracy of Interests: Iroquois Dispossession and the Rise of New York State|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GEFjmdzKqlgC&pg=PA196 |location=Syracuse, New York |publisher=Syracuse University Press |page= 196|isbn=0-8156-0547-1}}</ref>

===Texas===
Just before leaving office in March 1837, Andrew Jackson extended diplomatic recognition to the [[Republic of Texas]], which had gained de facto independence from [[Mexico]] in the [[Texas Revolution]]. By suggesting the prospect of quick [[annexation]], Jackson raised the danger of war with Mexico and heightened sectional tensions at home. New England abolitionists charged that there was a "[[Slave Power|slaveholding conspiracy]] to acquire Texas", and [[Daniel Webster]] eloquently denounced annexation.<ref name=AmerPres>{{cite book|title=The American Presidency|editor1-last=Brinkley|editor1-first=Alan|editor2-last=Dyer|editor2-first=Davis|publisher=Houghton Mifflin|location=New York|year=2004|url=https://books.google.com/?id=3djEYV3R7oIC&pg=PA109&lpg=PA109&dq=financial+dispute+between+American+citizens+and+the+Mexican+government#v=onepage&q=financial%20dispute%20between%20American%20citizens%20and%20the%20Mexican%20government&f=false|page=109|isbn=0-618-38273-9|accessdate=March 11, 2017}}</ref> Many Southern leaders, meanwhile, strongly desired the expansion of slave-holding territory in the United States.{{sfn|Wilson|1984|pp=151–152}}

Boldly reversing Jackson's policies, Van Buren sought peace abroad and harmony at home. He proposed a diplomatic solution to a long-standing financial dispute between American citizens and the Mexican government, rejecting Jackson's threat to settle it by force.<ref name=AmerPres/> Likewise, when the Texas minister at Washington, D.C., proposed annexation to the administration in August&nbsp;1837, he was told that the proposition could not be entertained. Constitutional scruples and fear of war with Mexico were the reasons given for the rejection,<ref name=TexAnnex3638>{{cite web|last=Neu|first=C. T.|title=Annexation|work=Handbook of Texas Online|publisher=Texas State Historical Association|location=Austin|url=https://tshaonline.org/handbook/online/articles/mga02|accessdate=March 11, 2017}}</ref> but concern that it would precipitate a clash over the extension of slavery undoubtedly influenced Van Buren and continued to be the chief obstacle to annexation.<ref>{{cite book|last=Merk|first=Frederick|title=History of the Westward Movement|date=1978|page=279|publisher=Alfred A. Knopf|location=New York|isbn=9780394411750|url=https://archive.org/details/historyofwestwar00merk}}</ref> Northern and Southern Democrats followed an unspoken rule in which Northerners helped quash anti-slavery proposals and Southerners refrained from agitating for the annexation of Texas.{{sfn|Wilson|1984|pp=151–152}} Texas withdrew the annexation offer in 1838.<ref name=TexAnnex3638/>

===Britain===
British subjects in [[Lower Canada]] (now Quebec) and [[Upper Canada]] (now Ontario) rose in [[rebellion]] in 1837 and 1838, protesting their lack of [[responsible government]]. While the initial insurrection in Upper Canada ended quickly (following the December&nbsp;1837 [[Battle of Montgomery's Tavern]]), many of the rebels fled across the [[Niagara River]] into New York, and Canadian leader [[William Lyon Mackenzie]] began recruiting volunteers in [[Buffalo, New York|Buffalo]].<ref name=AoD>{{cite book|title=Agent of Destiny: The Life and Times of General Winfield Scott|last=Eisenhower|first=John S. D.|page=178|authorlink=John Eisenhower|publisher=University of Oklahoma Press|year=1997|isbn=0-8061-3128-4}}</ref> Mackenzie declared the establishment of the [[Republic of Canada]] and put into motion a plan whereby volunteers would invade Upper Canada from [[Navy Island]] on the Canadian side of the Niagara River. Several hundred volunteers traveled to Navy Island in the weeks that followed. They procured the steamboat ''[[Caroline affair|Caroline]]'' to deliver supplies to Navy Island from [[Fort Schlosser]].<ref name=AoD/> Seeking to deter an imminent invasion, British forces crossed to the American bank of the river in late December&nbsp;1837, and they burned and sank the ''Caroline''. In the melee, one American was killed and others were wounded.<ref name=companion>{{cite book|title=The Reader's Companion to the American Presidency|editor1-last=Brinkley|editor1-first=Alan|editor2-last=Dyer|editor2-first=Davis|page=[https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780395788899/page/113 113]|publisher=Houghton Mifflin|location=New York|year=2000|isbn=0-395-78889-7|url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780395788899/page/113}}</ref>

Considerable sentiment arose within the United States to declare war, and a British ship was burned in revenge.<ref name=MVforeign/> Van Buren, looking to avoid a war with Great Britain, sent General Winfield Scott to the [[Canada–United States border]] with large discretionary powers for its protection and its peace.<ref>{{cite web|title=The Patriot War|last=Ross|first=Robert Budd|pages=11–12|date=1890|publisher=The Detroit Evening News, revised for the Michigan Pioneer and Historical Society|url=https://books.google.com/?id=8d8BAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q=Caroline&f=false|accessdate=March 25, 2017}}</ref> Scott impressed upon American citizens the need for a peaceful resolution to the crisis, and made it clear that the U.S. government would not support adventuresome Americans attacking the British. Also, in early January&nbsp;1838, the president proclaimed U.S. neutrality with regard to the Canadian independence issue,{{sfn|Nowlan|2012|p=329}} a declaration which Congress endorsed by passing a neutrality law designed to discourage the participation of American citizens in foreign conflicts.<ref name=MVforeign/>

[[File:DENT(1881) 1.213 DESTRUCTION OF THE CAROLINE.jpg|thumb|upright=1.35|"Destruction of the ''Caroline''", illustration by John Charles Dent (1881)]]

During the Canadian rebellions, Charles Duncombe and Robert Nelson helped foment a largely American militia, the [[Hunters' Lodges|Hunters' Lodge]]/[[Frères chasseurs]]. This militia carried out several attacks in Upper Canada between December 1837 and December 1838, collectively known as the [[Patriot War]]. The administration followed through on its enforcement of the Neutrality Act, encouraged the prosecution of [[Filibuster (military)|filibusters]], and actively deterred U.S. citizens from subversive activities abroad. In the long term, Van Buren's opposition to the Patriot War contributed to the construction of healthy [[Special relationship|Anglo-American]] and [[Canada–United States relations]] in the 20th century; it also led, more immediately, to a backlash among citizens regarding the seeming overreach of federal authority,<ref>{{cite journal|title=Choosing Peace and Order: National Security and Sovereignty in a North American Borderland, 1837–42|last=Lacroix|first=Patrick|pages=943–960|volume=38|issue=5|date=2016|journal=The International History Review|doi=10.1080/07075332.2015.1070892}}</ref> which hurt congressional Democrats in the 1838 midterm elections.

A new crisis surfaced in late 1838, in the disputed territory on the [[Maine]]–[[New Brunswick]] frontier, where Americans were settling on long-disputed land claimed by the United States and Great Britain.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mainepublic.org/post/side-trips-fort-fairfield-block-house-preserves-era-conflict-northern-maine|title=Side Trips: Fort Fairfield Block House Preserves Era of Conflict in Northern Maine|last=Mitchell|first=Jennifer|date=August 21, 2014|publisher= Maine Public}}</ref> Jackson had been willing to drop American claims to the region in return for other concessions, but Maine was unwilling to drop its claims to the disputed territory. For their part, the British considered possession of the area vital to the defense of Canada.{{sfn|Wilson|1984|pp=164–166}} Both American and New Brunswick [[lumberjack]]s cut timber in the disputed territory during the winter of 1838–1839. On December&nbsp;29, New Brunswick lumbermen were spotted cutting down trees on an American estate near the [[Aroostook River]].<ref name=MVforeign>{{cite web | url=https://millercenter.org/president/vanburen/foreign-affairs| title=Martin Van Buren: Foreign Affairs|publisher=Miller Center of Public Affairs University of Virginia|accessdate=March 6, 2017}}</ref>

After American woodcutters rushed to stand guard, a shouting match, known as the [[Battle of Caribou]], ensued. Tensions quickly boiled over into a near war with both Maine and New Brunswick arresting each other's citizens. The crisis seemed ready to turn into an armed conflict.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.historycentral.com/Ant/Aroostock.html|title=1837 – Aroostook War|publisher=Historycentral|accessdate=March 17, 2017}}</ref> British troops began to gather along the [[St. John River (Bay of Fundy)|Saint John River]]. Governor [[John Fairfield]] mobilized the state militia to confront the British in the disputed territory{{sfn|Silbey|2002|p=128}} and several [[Blockhouse|forts]] were constructed.<ref>{{cite web|title=Fort Kent Blockhouse|url=https://www.nps.gov/maac/planyourvisit/blockhouse.htm|publisher=National Park Service U.S. Department of the Interior|accessdate=March 27, 2017}}</ref> The American press clamored for war; "Maine and her soil, or BLOOD!" screamed one editorial. "Let the sword be drawn and the scabbard thrown away!" In June, Congress authorized 50,000&nbsp;troops and a $10&nbsp;million budget<ref>{{cite web|title=The High Comedy of the Bloodless Aroostook War|url=http://www.newenglandhistoricalsociety.com/the-high-comedy-of-the-bloodless-aroostook-war/|publisher=New England Historical Society|location= Stonington|accessdate=March 17, 2017}}</ref> in the event foreign military troops crossed into United States territory.

Van Buren was unwilling to go to war over the disputed territory, though he assured Maine that he would respond to any attacks by the British.{{sfn|Wilson|1984|pp=166–167}} To settle the crisis, Van Buren met with the [[List of ambassadors of the United Kingdom to the United States|British minister to the United States]], and Van Buren and the minister agreed to resolve the border issue diplomatically.{{sfn|Silbey|2002|p=128}} Van Buren also sent General Scott to the northern border area, both to show military resolve, and more importantly, to lower the tensions. Scott successfully convinced all sides to submit the border issue to arbitration. The border dispute was put to rest a few years later, with the signing of the 1842 [[Webster–Ashburton Treaty]].<ref name=MVforeign/>{{sfn|Nowlan|2012|p=329}}

===''Amistad'' case===
The ''[[United States v. The Amistad|Amistad]]'' case was a freedom suit that involved international issues and parties, as well as United States law, resulting from the rebellion of Africans on board the Spanish schooner ''[[La Amistad]]'' in 1839.<ref name="usamistad">[http://caselaw.lp.findlaw.com/scripts/getcase.pl?navby=CASE&court=US&vol=40&page=518 ''United States v. The Amistad''], Findlaw, accessed March 30, 2013</ref> Van Buren viewed abolitionism as the greatest threat to the nation's unity, and he resisted the slightest interference with slavery in the states where it existed.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.vlib.us/amdocs/texts/13vanb1.htm |title=Martin Van Buren, First Inaugural, March 4, 1837 &#124; AMDOCS: Documents for the Study of American History |publisher=Vlib.us|accessdate=December 5, 2011|quote=I must go into the Presidential chair with the inflexible and uncompromising opponent of every attempt on the part of Congress to abolish slavery in the District of Columbia against the wishes of the slaveholding States, and also with a determination equally decided to resist the slightest interference with it in the States where it exists.}}</ref> His administration supported the Spanish government's demand that the ship and its cargo (including the Africans) be turned over to them.<ref>{{cite book |last=Kidder |first=David S. |last2=Oppenheim |first2= Noah D.|date=2007 |title=The Intellectual Devotional: American History; Revive Your Mind, Complete Your Education, and Converse Confidently about Our Nation's Past |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pU3GTO70ZssC&pg=PA122 |publisher=TID Volumes, LLC |page=122 |isbn=9781594867446}}</ref> A federal district court judge ruled that the Africans were legally free and should be transported home, but Van Buren's administration appealed the case to the Supreme Court.

In February 1840, former president [[John Quincy Adams]] argued passionately for the Africans' right to freedom, and Attorney General [[Henry D. Gilpin]] presented the government’s case. In March&nbsp;1841, the Supreme Court issued its final verdict: the ''Amistad'' Africans were free people and should be allowed to return home.<ref>{{cite web|title=Amistad Story|url=https://www.nps.gov/nr/travel/amistad/amistadstory.htm|work=Amistad: Seeking Freedom in Connecticut|publisher=National Park Service's National Register of Historic Places U.S. Department of the Interior|accessdate=March 13, 2017}}</ref> The unique nature of the case heightened public interest in the saga, including the participation of former president Adams, Africans testifying in federal court, and their being represented by prominent lawyers. The Amistad case drew attention to the personal tragedies of slavery and attracted new support for the growing abolition movement in the North. It also transformed the courts into the principal forum for a national debate on the legal foundations of slavery.<ref>{{cite web|title=A Brief Narrative|work= Teaching and Civic Outreach Resources Amistad: The Federal Courts and the Challenge to Slavery – Historical Background and Documents|url=http://www.fjc.gov/history/home.nsf/page/tu_amistad_narrative.html|publisher=Federal Judicial Center|location=Washington|accessdate=March 13, 2017}}</ref>

===Judicial appointments===
{{Main|Martin Van Buren judicial appointments}}
Van Buren appointed two Associate Justices to the Supreme Court:<ref>{{Cite web|title = U.S. Senate: Supreme Court Nominations: 1789–Present|url = https://www.senate.gov/pagelayout/reference/nominations/Nominations.htm|website = www.senate.gov|access-date = March 8, 2017}}</ref> [[John McKinley]], confirmed September&nbsp;25, 1837, and [[Peter Vivian Daniel]], confirmed March&nbsp;2, 1841. He also appointed eight other federal judges, all to [[United States district court]]s.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.fjc.gov/history/home.nsf/page/research_categories.html |title=Federal Judicial Center: Search by Nominating President; Martin Van Buren |website=Federal Judicial Center |publisher=Federal Judicial Center Foundation |accessdate=December 24, 2014}}</ref>

===White House hostess===
For the first half of his presidency, Van Buren, who had been a widower for many years, did not have a specific person fill the role of White House hostess at administration social events, but tried to assume such duties himself. When his eldest son [[Abraham Van Buren]] married [[Angelica Singleton Van Buren|Angelica Singleton]] in 1838, he quickly acted to install his daughter-in-law as his hostess. She solicited the advice of her distant relative, [[Dolley Madison]],<ref name=CaroliFirstLadies>{{cite book|title=First Ladies|last=Caroli|first=Betty Boyd|page=41|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2003|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3DiQRbwz6jcC&q=Angelica#v=snippet&q=Angelica&f=false|isbn=0-19-5-16676-0|accessdate=March 10, 2017}}</ref> who had moved back to Washington after her [[James Madison|husband's]] death,<ref>{{cite web|title=Van Buren's Presidential Hostess|url=http://www.americaslibrary.gov/aa/buren/aa_buren_hostess_2.html|website=America's Story|publisher=Library of Congress|accessdate=March 9, 2017}}</ref> and soon the president's parties livened up. After the 1839 New Year's Eve reception, the ''Boston Post'' raved: "[Angelica Van Buren is a] lady of rare accomplishments, very modest yet perfectly easy and graceful in her manners and free and vivacious in her conversation&nbsp;... universally admired."<ref name=CaroliFirstLadies/>

As the nation endured a deep [[economic depression]], Angelica Van Buren's receiving style at receptions was influenced by her heavy reading on European court life (and her naive delight in being received as the ''Queen of the United States'' when she visited the royal courts of England and France after her marriage). Newspaper coverage of this, in addition to the claim that she intended to re-landscape the [[South Lawn (White House)|White House grounds]] to resemble the royal gardens of Europe, was used in a political attack on her father-in-law by a Pennsylvania Whig Congressman [[Charles Ogle (politician)|Charles Ogle]]. He referred obliquely to her as part of the presidential "household" in his famous [[Gold Spoon Oration]]. The attack was delivered in Congress and the depiction of the president as living a royal lifestyle was a primary factor in his defeat for re-election.<ref>{{cite web|last=Anthony|first=Carl|title=First Ladies Never Married to Presidents: Angelica Van Buren|date=September 24, 2014|url=http://www.firstladies.org/blog/first-ladies-never-married-to-presidents-angelica-van-buren/|publisher=National First Ladies Library|accessdate=March 10, 2017}}</ref>

===Presidential election of 1840===
{{Main|United States presidential election, 1840}}
[[File:ElectoralCollege1840.svg|thumb|1840 electoral vote results]]
Van Buren easily won renomination for a second term at the [[1840 Democratic National Convention]], but he and his party faced a difficult [[1840 United States presidential election|election in 1840]]. Van Buren's presidency had been a difficult affair, with the U.S. economy mired in a severe downturn, and other divisive issues, such as slavery, western expansion, and tensions with Great Britain, providing opportunities for Van Buren's political opponents—including some of his fellow Democrats—to criticize his actions.<ref name=MVelections/> Although Van Buren's renomination was never in doubt, Democratic strategists began to question the wisdom of keeping Johnson on the ticket. Even former president Jackson conceded that Johnson was a liability and insisted on former House Speaker [[James K. Polk]] of Tennessee as Van Buren's new running mate. Van Buren was reluctant to drop Johnson, who was popular with workers and radicals in the North{{sfn|Cole|1984|p=358}} and added military experience to the ticket, which might prove important against likely Whig nominee William Henry Harrison.<ref name=RMJ9th/> Rather than re-nominating Johnson, the Democratic convention decided to allow state Democratic Party leaders to select the vice-presidential candidates for their states.<ref>{{cite web|title=Democratic National Political Conventions, 1832–2008|publisher=Library of Congress|location=Washington|url=https://www.loc.gov/rr/main/polcon/democraticindex.html|accessdate=March 7, 2017}}</ref>

Van Buren hoped that the Whigs would nominate Clay for president, which would allow Van Buren to cast the 1840&nbsp;campaign as a clash between Van Buren's Independent Treasury system and Clay's support for a national bank. However, rather than nominating longtime party spokesmen like Clay and Daniel Webster, the [[1839 Whig National Convention]] nominated Harrison, who had served in various governmental positions during his career and had earned notoriety for his military leadership in the [[Battle of Tippecanoe]] and the [[War of 1812]]. Whig leaders like [[William Seward]] and [[Thaddeus Stevens]] believed that Harrison's war record would effectively counter the popular appeals of the Democratic Party. For vice president, the Whigs nominated former Senator [[John Tyler]] of Virginia. Clay was deeply disappointed by his defeat at the convention, but he nonetheless threw his support behind Harrison.{{sfn|Wilson|1984|pp=191–195}}

Whigs presented Harrison as the antithesis of the president, whom they derided as ineffective, corrupt, and effete.<ref name=MVelections/> Whigs also depicted Van Buren as an aristocrat living in high style in the White House, while they used images of Harrison in a log cabin sipping cider to convince voters that he was a man of the people.<ref name=NPSsetting>{{cite web|title=Historical Context: Setting the Stage|url=https://www.nps.gov/nr/twhp/wwwlps/lessons/39vanburen/39setting.htm|work=Teaching with Historic Places: Martin Van Buren's "Return to the Soil" (39)|publisher=National Park Service U.S. Department of the Interior|accessdate=March 12, 2017}}</ref> They threw such jabs as "Van, Van, is a used-up man" and "Martin Van Ruin" and ridiculed him in newspapers and cartoons.<ref>{{cite book|title=Chronology of the U.S. Presidency|volume=1|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uqB3ehA7M0oC&pg=PA278#v=onepage&q&f=false|editor-last=Manweller|editor-first=Mathew Manweller|publisher=ABC-CLIO|location=Santa Barbara|page=278|isbn=9781598846454|year=2012}}</ref> Issues of policy were not absent from the campaign; the Whigs derided the alleged executive overreaches of Jackson and Van Buren, while also calling for a national bank and higher tariffs.{{sfn|Wilson|1984|pp=199–200}} Democrats attempted to campaign on the Independent Treasury system, but the onset of [[deflation]] undercut these arguments.{{sfn|Wilson|1984|pp=203–204}} The enthusiasm for "[[Tippecanoe and Tyler Too]]", coupled with the country's severe economic crisis, made it impossible for Van Buren to win a second term.<ref name=NPSsetting/> Harrison won by a popular vote of 1,275,612 to 1,130,033, and an electoral vote margin of 234 to 60.<ref name=preselections/> An astonishing 80% of eligible voters went to the polls on election day.<ref name=MVelections/> Van Buren actually won more votes than he had in 1836, but the Whig success in attracting new voters more than canceled out Democratic gains.{{sfn|Wilson|1984|pp=206–207}} Additionally, Whigs won majorities for the first time in both the House of Representatives and the Senate.<ref name=RMJ9th/>

==Later life==

===Election of 1844===
On the expiration of his term, Van Buren returned to his estate of [[Lindenwald]] in Kinderhook.{{sfn|Niven|1983|pp=478–479}} He continued to closely watch political developments, including the battle between Clay and President Tyler, who took office after Harrison's death in April&nbsp;1841.{{sfn|Niven|1983|pp=487–488}} Though undecided on another presidential run, Van Buren made several moves calculated to maintain his support, including a trip to the South and West during which he met with Jackson, former Speaker of the House [[James K. Polk]], and others.{{sfn|Niven|1983|pp=488–494}} President Tyler, [[James Buchanan]], [[Levi Woodbury]], and others loomed as potential challengers for the 1844&nbsp;Democratic nomination, but it was Calhoun who posed the most formidable obstacle.{{sfn|Niven|1983|p=501}}

Van Buren remained silent on major public issues like the debate over the [[Tariff of 1842]], hoping to arrange for the appearance of a draft movement for his presidential candidacy.{{sfn|Niven|1983|pp=504–505}} President John Tyler made annexation of Texas his chief foreign policy goal, and many Democrats, particularly in the South, were anxious to quickly complete the annexation of Texas.<ref name="rlambert1"/> After an explosion on the {{USS|Princeton|1843|6}} killed Secretary of State [[Abel P. Upshur]] in February&nbsp;1844, Tyler brought Calhoun into his cabinet to direct foreign affairs.{{sfn|Niven|1983|pp=516–520}} Like Tyler, Calhoun pursued the annexation of Texas to upend the presidential race and to extend slavery into new territories.{{sfn|Niven|1983|pp=518–520}}

Shortly after taking office, Secretary of State Calhoun negotiated an annexation treaty between the United States and Texas.{{sfn|Niven|1983|p=520}} Van Buren had hoped he would not have to take a public stand on annexation, but as the Texas question came to dominate U.S. politics, he decided to make his views on the issue public.{{sfn|Niven|1983|pp=520–521, 525}} Though he believed that his public acceptance of annexation would likely help him win the 1844 Democratic nomination, Van Buren thought that annexation would inevitably lead to an unjust war with Mexico.{{sfn|Niven|1983|pp=525–527}} In a public letter published shortly after Henry Clay also announced his opposition to the annexation treaty, Van Buren articulated his views on the Texas question.{{sfn|Niven|1983|pp=528–529}}

Van Buren's opposition to immediate annexation cost him the support of many pro-slavery Democrats.<ref>{{cite book |last= Moore |first=John Trotwood |last2= Foster |first2=Austin Powers |date=1923 |title=Tennessee: The Volunteer State, 1769–1923 |url=https://books.google.com/?id=4LQCAAAAMAAJ&dq=%22van+buren%22+letter+1844+texas+annexation+lost+southern+support&q=%22van+buren%27s+chances%22+ |publisher=S. J. Clarke Publishing Company |page= 422}}</ref> In the weeks before the [[1844 Democratic National Convention]], Van Buren's supporters anticipated that he would win a majority of the delegates on the first presidential ballot, but would not be able to win the support of the required two-thirds of delegates.{{sfn|Niven|1983|pp=533–534}} Van Buren's supporters attempted to prevent the adoption of the two-thirds rule, but several Northern delegates joined with Southern delegates in implementing the two-thirds rule for the 1844 convention.{{sfn|Niven|1983|pp=535–538}} Van Buren won 146 of the 266&nbsp;votes on the first presidential ballot, with only 12 of his votes coming from Southern states.<ref name="rlambert1">{{cite journal |last1=Lambert |first1=Robert S. |title=The Democratic National Convention of 1844 |journal=Tennessee Historical Quarterly |date=March 1955 |volume=14 |issue=1 |pages=3–23 |jstor=42621214 }}</ref>

Senator [[Lewis Cass]] won much of the remaining vote, and he gradually picked up support on subsequent ballots until the convention adjourned for the day.{{sfn|Niven|1983|p=538}} When the convention reconvened and held another ballot, James K. Polk, who shared many of Van Buren's views but favored immediate annexation, won 44&nbsp;votes.{{sfn|Niven|1983|p=539}} On the ninth and final ballot of the convention, Van Buren's supporters withdrew the former president's name from consideration, and Polk won the Democratic presidential nomination.{{sfn|Niven|1983|pp=539–540}} Though angered at the way in which his opponents had denied him in the Democratic nomination, Van Buren endorsed Polk in the interest of party unity.{{sfn|Niven|1983|pp=541–542}} He also convinced Silas Wright to run for Governor of New York so that the popular Wright could help boost Polk in the state.{{sfn|Niven|1983|pp=547–548}} Wright narrowly defeated Whig nominee [[Millard Fillmore]] in the [[New York state election, 1844|1844 gubernatorial election]], and Wright's victory in the state helped Polk narrowly defeat Henry Clay in the [[1844 United States presidential election|1844 presidential election]].{{sfn|Niven|1983|p=548}}

After taking office, Polk used [[George Bancroft]] as an intermediary to offer Van Buren the ambassadorship to London. Van Buren declined, partly because he was upset with Polk over the treatment the Van Buren delegates had received at the 1844 convention, and partly because he was content in his retirement.{{sfn|Cole|1984|p=405}} Polk also consulted Van Buren in the formation of his cabinet, but offended Van Buren by offering to appoint a New Yorker only to the lesser post of Secretary of War, rather than as Secretary of State or Secretary of the Treasury.{{sfn|Niven|1983|pp=550–556}} Other patronage decisions also angered Van Buren and Wright, and they became permanently alienated from the Polk administration.{{sfn|Niven|1983|pp=564–565}}

===Election of 1848===
[[File:Mvanburen.jpeg|thumb|upright|alt=A three-quarters length painted portrait of a balding man with gray hair, standing with his right hand grasping a bundle of papers lying on a table|1858 portrait by [[George Peter Alexander Healy|GPA Healy]], on display at the [[White House]]]]
Though he had previously helped maintain a balance between the [[Barnburners and Hunkers]], the two factions of the New York Democratic Party, Van Buren moved closer to the Barnburners after the 1844 Democratic National Convention.{{sfn|Niven|1983|p=543–544}} The split in the state party worsened during the Polk's presidency, as his administration lavished patronage on the Hunkers.{{sfn|Niven|1983|pp=570–571}} In his retirement, Van Buren also grew increasingly opposed to slavery.<ref>{{cite book |last= Ferrell |first=Claudine L. |date=2006 |title=The Abolitionist Movement|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mG_MNzwawSAC&pg=PA88 |location=Westport|publisher=Greenwood Press |page=88 |isbn=0-313-33180-4}}</ref>

As the [[Mexican–American War]] brought the debate over slavery in the territories to the forefront of American politics, Van Buren published an anti-slavery manifesto. In it, he refuted the notion that Congress did not have the power to regulate slavery in the territories, and argued the [[Founding Fathers]] had favored the eventual [[Abolitionism in the United States|abolition]] of slavery.{{sfn|Niven|1983|pp=567–570}} The document, which became known as the "Barnburner Manifesto," was edited at Van Buren's request by John Van Buren and [[Samuel Tilden]], both of whom were leaders of the Barnburner faction.{{sfn|Silbey|2002|pp=193–194}} After the publication of the Barnburner Manifesto, many Barnburners urged the former president to seek his old office in the [[1848 United States presidential election|1848 presidential election]].{{sfn|Niven|1983|pp=575–576}} The [[1848 Democratic National Convention]] seated competing Barnburner and Hunker delegations from New York, but the Barnburners walked out of the convention when Lewis Cass, who opposed congressional regulation of slavery in the territories, was nominated on the fourth ballot.{{sfn|Niven|1983|p=580}}

In response to the nomination of Cass, the Barnburners began to organize as a [[third party (United States)|third party]]. At a convention held in June&nbsp;1848, in [[Utica, New York]], the Barnburners nominated Van Buren for president.{{sfn|Niven|1983|pp=581–585}} Though reluctant to bolt from the Democratic Party, Van Buren accepted the nomination to show the power of the anti-slavery movement, help defeat Cass, and weaken the Hunkers.{{sfn|Niven|1983|pp=585–586}} At a convention held in [[Buffalo, New York]] in August&nbsp;1848, a group of anti-slavery Democrats, Whigs, and members of the abolitionist [[Liberty Party (United States, 1840)|Liberty Party]] met in the first national convention of what became known as the [[Free Soil Party]].{{sfn|Niven|1983|pp=587–589}}

The convention unanimously nominated Van Buren, and chose [[Charles Francis Adams Sr.|Charles Francis Adams]] as Van Buren's running mate. In a public message accepting the nomination, Van Buren gave his full support for the [[Wilmot Proviso]], a proposed law that would ban slavery in all territories acquired from Mexico in the Mexican–American War.{{sfn|Niven|1983|pp=587–589}} Van Buren won no electoral votes, but finished second to Whig nominee [[Zachary Taylor]] in New York, taking enough votes from Cass to give the state—and perhaps the election—to Taylor.<ref>{{cite book |last=Manweller |first=Mathew |date= March 19, 2012|title=Chronology of the U.S. Presidency in 4 Volumes, Volume 1 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=yM7E2G0tAiwC&pg=PA271|location=Santa Barbara|publisher=ABC-CLIO |page=271 |isbn=9781598846454}}</ref> Nationwide, Van Buren won 10.1% of the popular vote, the [[List of third party performances in United States presidential elections|strongest showing by a third party presidential nominee]] up to that point in U.S. history.

===Retirement===
[[File:Martin Van Buren daguerreotype-restored.jpg|thumb|upright|alt=Half-length photographic portrait of an elderly, balding man dressed in a dark coat, vest and cravat|[[Daguerreotype]] of Martin Van Buren, circa 1855]]
Van Buren never sought public office again after the 1848 election, but he continued to closely follow national politics. He was deeply troubled by the stirrings of secessionism in the South and welcomed the [[Compromise of 1850]] as a necessary conciliatory measure despite his opposition to the [[Fugitive Slave Act of 1850]].{{sfn|Niven|1983|p=592}} Van Buren also worked on a history of American political parties and embarked on a tour of Europe, becoming the first former American head of state to visit Britain.{{sfn|Niven|1983|pp=598–602}} Though still concerned about slavery, Van Buren and his followers returned to the Democratic fold, partly out of the fear that a continuing Democratic split would help the Whig Party.{{sfn|Silbey|2002|p=203}} He also attempted to reconcile the Barnburners and the Hunkers, with mixed results.{{sfn|Silbey|2002|p=204}}

Van Buren supported [[Franklin Pierce]] for president in [[1852 United States presidential election|1852]],{{sfn|Niven|1983|p=596}} James Buchanan in [[1856 United States presidential election|1856]],{{sfn|Niven|1983|p=605}} and [[Stephen A. Douglas]] in [[1860 United States presidential election|1860]].{{sfn|Niven|1983|p=610}} Van Buren viewed the fledgling [[Know Nothing]] movement with contempt and felt that the anti-slavery [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican Party]] exacerbated sectional tensions.{{sfn|Niven|1983|pp=604–605}} He considered Chief Justice [[Roger Taney]]'s decision in the 1857 case of ''[[Dred Scott v. Sandford]]'' to be a "grievous mistake" since it overturned the [[Missouri Compromise]].{{sfn|Niven|1983|pp=605–606}} He believed that the Buchanan administration handled the issue of [[Bleeding Kansas]] poorly, and saw the [[Lecompton Constitution]] as a sop to Southern extremists.{{sfn|Niven|1983|p=607}}

After the election of [[Abraham Lincoln]] and the secession of several Southern states in 1860, Van Buren unsuccessfully sought to call a constitutional convention.{{sfn|Niven|1983|p=610}} In April&nbsp;1861, former president Pierce wrote to the other living former presidents and asked them to consider meeting to use their stature and influence to propose a negotiated end to the war. Pierce asked Van Buren to use his role as the senior living ex-president to issue a formal call. Van Buren's reply suggested that Buchanan should be the one to call the meeting, since he was the former president who had served most recently, or that Pierce should issue the call himself if he strongly believed in the merit of his proposal. Neither Buchanan nor Pierce was willing to make Pierce's proposal public, and nothing more resulted from it.{{sfn|Cole|1984|p=425}} Once the [[American Civil War]] began, Van Buren made public his support for the [[Union (American Civil War)|Union]].{{sfn|Widmer|2005|p=164}}

{{anchor|Death}}Van Buren's health began to fail later in 1861, and he was bedridden with pneumonia during the fall and winter of 1861–1862.<ref>{{cite book |last= Dunlap|first=Leslie Whittaker|date=1988 |title=Our Vice-Presidents and Second Ladies |url=https://books.google.com/?id=BkZ1AAAAMAAJ&q=%22martin+van+buren%22+%22bedridden%22+%221861%22&dq=%22martin+van+buren%22+%22bedridden%22+%221861%22 |location=Metuchen|publisher=Scarecrow Press |page= 50|isbn=9780810821149 }}</ref> He died of bronchial [[asthma]] and [[heart failure]] at his Lindenwald estate at 2:00&nbsp;a.m. on July&nbsp;24, 1862, at the age of 79.<ref>{{cite book |last=Butler|first=William Allen |date=1862 |title=Martin Van Buren: Lawyer, Statesman and Man |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=VJU-AAAAYAAJ&pg=PA5 |location=New York|publisher=D. Appleton and Company |page=5}}</ref> He is buried in the [[Reformed Dutch Church (Kinderhook, New York)|Kinderhook Reformed Dutch Church]] Cemetery, as are his wife Hannah, his parents, and his son Martin Van Buren Jr.<ref>{{cite book |author1=Lamb, Brian |author2=the C-SPAN staff |lastauthoramp=yes |title=Who's Buried in Grant's Tomb?: A Tour of Presidential Gravesites |location=Washington|publisher=National Cable Satellite Corporation |year=2000 |isbn=1-881846-07-5 |url=https://archive.org/details/whosburiedingran00lamb }}</ref>

Van Buren outlived all four of his immediate successors: Harrison, Tyler, Polk, and Taylor. Despite this, he is not one of the longest lived presidents.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Glass |first1=Andrew |title=Van Buren slips into coma |url=https://www.politico.com/story/2014/07/this-day-in-politics-martin-van-buren-coma-109149 |website=Politico |publisher=Politico |accessdate=14 May 2019}}</ref>

==Legacy==

===Historical reputation===
Van Buren's most lasting achievement was as a political organizer who built the Democratic Party and guided it to dominance in the [[Second Party System]],{{sfn|Cole|1984|p=16}} and historians have come to regard Van Buren as integral to the development of the American political system.<ref name=MVLiB>{{cite web | url=https://millercenter.org/president/vanburen/life-in-brief | title=Martin Van Buren: Life in Brief|publisher=Miller Center of Public Affairs University of Virginia|accessdate=March 6, 2017}}</ref> His presidency is [[Historical rankings of Presidents of the United States|considered to be average]], at best, by historians.<ref name=MVLiB/>

His time in office was dominated by the economic disaster of the Panic of 1837, and historians have split on the adequacy of the Independent Treasury as a response to that issue.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://millercenter.org/president/vanburen/impact-and-legacy | title=Martin Van Buren: Impact and Legacy|publisher=Miller Center of Public Affairs University of Virginia|accessdate=March 16, 2017}}</ref> Several writers have portrayed Van Buren as among the nation's most obscure presidents. As noted in a 2014 Time Magazine article on the "Top 10 Forgettable Presidents":
{{Quote|Making himself nearly disappear completely from the history books was probably not the trick the "Little Magician" Martin Van Buren had in mind, but his was the first truly forgettable American presidency.<ref>{{cite web|last=Fletcher|first=Dan|publisher=Time|title=Martin Van Buren|work=Top Ten Forgettable Presidents|url=http://content.time.com/time/specials/packages/article/0,28804,1879648_1879646_1879654,00.html|accessdate=March 14, 2017}}</ref>}}

===Memorials and popular culture===
{{Main|List of memorials to Martin Van Buren}}
Van Buren's home in Kinderhook, New York, which he called Lindenwald, is now the [[Martin Van Buren National Historic Site]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.nps.gov/mava/learn/historyculture/stories.htm |title=One Hundred Years in the Making: Lindenwald Celebrates "Being Forty and Fabulous" |website=Martin Van Buren National Historic Site |publisher=National Park Service |location=Washington|access-date=May 2, 2017 |ref={{sfnRef|"One Hundred Years in the Making"}}}}</ref> Counties are named for Van Buren in [[Van Buren County, Michigan|Michigan]], [[Van Buren County, Iowa|Iowa]], [[Van Buren County, Arkansas|Arkansas]], and [[Van Buren County, Tennessee|Tennessee]].<ref>{{cite book |last= Gannett|first=Henry |date= 1905|title= The Origin of Certain Place Names in the United States|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BqwPAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA309 |publisher=U.S. Government Printing Office |page= 309}}</ref> [[Mount Van Buren]], {{USS|Van Buren|1839|6}}, three state parks and numerous towns were named after him.

During the [[1988 United States presidential election|1988 presidential campaign]], [[George H. W. Bush]], a [[Yale University]] graduate and member of the [[Skull and Bones]] secret society, was attempting to become the first incumbent vice president to win election to the presidency since Van Buren. In the comic strip ''[[Doonesbury]]'', artist [[Garry Trudeau]] depicted members of Skull and Bones as attempting to rob Van Buren's grave, apparently intending to use the relics in a ritual that would aid Bush in the election.{{sfn|Widmer|2005|p=170}}<ref>{{cite book |last= Loizeau |first= Pierre-Marie |date= 2008 |title= Martin Van Buren: The Little Magician |url= https://books.google.com/?id=KQQQAQAAMAAJ&dq=%22martin+van+buren%22+doonesbury&q=doonesbury |publisher= Nova Science Publishers |page= 1|isbn= 9781604567731 }}</ref>

Van Buren is portrayed by [[Nigel Hawthorne]] in the 1997 film [[Amistad (film)|''Amistad'']]. The film depicts the controversy and legal battle surrounding the status of slaves who in 1839 rebelled against their transporters on ''[[La Amistad]]'' slave ship.<ref>{{cite web |title = Stephen Spielberg's "Amistad" (1997) |publisher =University of Missouri-Kansas City |url = http://law2.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/amistad/AMI_MOVI.HTM |access-date = July 9, 2016 }}</ref> On the television show ''[[Seinfeld]]'', the episode "[[The Van Buren Boys]]" is about a fictional [[street gang]] that admires Van Buren and bases its rituals and symbols on him, including the hand sign of eight fingers pointing up. Eight fingers signifies Van Buren, the eighth president.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.seinfeldscripts.com/TheVanBurenBoys.htm |title= The Van Buren Boys |website= Seinfeld Scripts |publisher= SeinfeldScripts.com |accessdate= November 12, 2014}}</ref>

Also, in an episode of [[The Monkees (TV series)|''The Monkees'']], about the pre-formed pop band of the same name (the episode was titled "Dance, Monkee, Dance"), a dance instruction studio offers free lessons to anyone who can answer the question, "Who was the eighth president of the United States?" Martin Van Buren shows up at the studio to begin his free dance lessons.<ref>{{cite web |url= https://monkees.coolcherrycream.com/picturedb/characters/martin-van-buren?album=14m |title= Martin Van Buren in "Dance, Monkee, Dance" pictures|website= Sunshine Factory - A Monkees Fan Site}}</ref>

==See also==
{{Wikipedia books|Presidents of the United States (1789–1860)}}
* [[American election campaigns in the 19th century]]
* [[Charlotte Dupuy]], slave who worked for Van Buren at [[Decatur House]], while her suit for freedom against [[Henry Clay]] proceeded
* [[List of Presidents of the United States]]
* [[List of Presidents of the United States, sortable by previous experience]]
* [[List of Presidents of the United States who owned slaves]]
* [[U.S. Presidents on U.S. postage stamps]]
* [[Papers of Martin Van Buren]]
* [[Andrew Jackson]], President when Van Buren was Vice President

== References ==

=== Notes ===
{{notes}}

=== Footnotes ===
{{reflist}}

=== Works cited ===
{{refbegin}}
* {{cite book|last = Brooke|first = J. L.|authorlink = John L. Brooke|date = 2010|title = Columbia rising: civil life on the Upper Hudson|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=L0XxrMd4nEsC|location = Chapel Hill|publisher = University of North Carolina Press|isbn = 9780807833230|ref = harv}}
* {{cite book|last = Cole|first = D. B.|date = 1984|title = Martin Van Buren and the American political system|publisher = Princeton University Press|isbn = 9780691047157|authorlink = Donald B. Cole|ref = harv}}
* {{cite book|last = Howe|first = D. W.|authorlink = Daniel Walker Howe|date = 2007|title = What hath God wrought: the transformation of America, 1815–1848|publisher = Oxford University Press|isbn = 9780195078947|ref = harv}}
* {{cite book|last = Niven|first = J.|date = 1983|title = Martin Van Buren: the romantic age of American politics|url = https://archive.org/details/martinvanburenro00nive|publisher = Oxford University Press|isbn = 9780195032383|ref = harv}}
* {{cite book|last = Nowlan|first = R. A.|date = 2012|title = The American presidents, from Washington to Tyler|location = Jefferson|publisher = McFarland|isbn = 9780786463367|ref = harv}}
* {{cite book|last = Remini|first = R. V.|authorlink = Robert V. Remini|date = 1959|title = Martin Van Buren and the making of the Democratic Party|location = New York|publisher = Columbia University Press|isbn = 9780231022880|ref = harv}}
* {{cite book|last = Shepard|first = E. M.|authorlink = Edward M. Shepard|date = 1899|title = Martin Van Buren and the emergence of American popular politics|url = https://archive.org/details/martinvanburenem00silb|location = Boston|publisher = Houghton, Mifflin and Co.|oclc = 396967|ref = harv}}
* {{cite book|last = Silbey|first = J. H.|authorlink = Joel H. Silbey|date = 2002|title = Martin Van Buren and the emergence of American popular politics|url = https://archive.org/details/martinvanburenem00silb|location = Lanham|publisher = Rowman & Littlefield|isbn = 9780742522435|ref = harv}}
* {{cite book|last = Widmer|first = E. L.|authorlink = Edward L. Widmer|date = 2005|title = Martin Van Buren: the 8th president, 1837–1841|url = https://books.google.com/?id=YiU_kd-iAcgC|location = New York|publisher = Times Books|isbn = 9780805069228|ref = harv}}
* {{cite book|last = Wilson|first = L.|date = 1984|title = The presidency of Martin Van Buren|location = Lawrence|publisher = University Press of Kansas|isbn = 9780700602384|ref = harv}}
{{refend}}

==Further reading==

===Books by Van Buren===
{{refbegin}}
* {{cite book|ref=harv|title=Inquiry into the Origin and Course of Political Parties in the United States|last=Van Buren|first=Martin|year=1867|editor1-first=Abraham|editor1-last=Van Buren|editor1-link=Abraham Van Buren|editor2-first=John|editor2-last=Van Buren|editor2-link=John Van Buren|publisher=Hurd and Houghton|location=New York|url=https://archive.org/details/cu31924030481745|isbn=1-4181-2924-0}}
* {{cite book|title=The Autobiography of Martin Van Buren|last=Van Buren|first=Martin|year=1920|editor1-first=John Clement|editor1-last=Fitzpatrick|publisher=Govt. Print. Off|location=Washington|series=Annual Report Of The American Historical Association For The Year 1918|volume=II|url=https://archive.org/details/cu31924024892709|isbn=0-678-00531-1}}
{{refend}}

===Books about Van Buren===
{{refbegin}}
* {{cite book|last=Alexander|first=Holmes|authorlink=Holmes Alexander |title=The American Talleyrand: Martin Van Buren|year=1935}}
* {{cite book|last=Curtis|first=James C.|title=The Fox at Bay: Martin Van Buren and the Presidency, 1837–1841|year=1970|publisher=University Press of Kentucky|location=Lexington|isbn=9780813112145}}
* {{cite book|ref=harv|first=Martha|last=Derthick|title=Dilemmas of Scale in America's Federal Democracy|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=X11p-A_vbpoC|accessdate=March 2, 2015|date=June 13, 1999|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=9780521640398}}
* {{cite book|last=Gammon|first=Samuel Rhea|title=The Presidential Campaign of 1832|year=1922|publisher=Johns Hopkins Press|location=Baltimore|url=https://archive.org/details/presidentialcamp00gamm}}
* {{cite book|title=The American Presidency|last=Henretta|first=James A.|editor1-first=Alan|editor1-last=Brinkley|editor1-link=Alan Brinkley|editor2-first=Davis|editor2-last=Dyer|chapter=Martin Van Buren|year=2004|publisher=Houghton Mifflin Company|location=Boston|isbn=0-618-38273-9|pages=103–114}}
* {{cite book|last=Holt|first=Michael F.|title=The Rise and Fall of the American Whig Party: Jacksonian Politics and the Onset of the Civil War|year=1999|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=New York|isbn=9780195055443}}
* {{cite book|last=Lynch|first=Denis Tilden|title=An Epoch and a Man: Martin Van Buren and His Times|year=1929|publisher=H. Liveright|location=New York}}
* {{cite book|last=Schouler|first=James|title=History of the United States of America, 1831–1847. Democrats and Whigs|year=1889|volume=4|publisher=W. H. Morrison|location=Washington|url=https://archive.org/details/historyofuniteds04schouoft|authorlink=James Schouler}}
* {{cite book|last=Silbey|first=Joel H.|title=Party Over Section: The Rough and Ready Presidential Election of 1848|year=2009|publisher=University Press of Kansas|location=Lawrence|isbn=9780700616404}}
* {{cite book|author=Silbey, Joel H. |title=A Companion to the Antebellum Presidents, 1837–1861|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mgCJAgAAQBAJ|year=2014|publisher=Wiley|pages=109–154|isbn=9781118609293}}
{{refend}}

==External links==
{{Spoken Wikipedia|en-Martin Van Buren-article.ogg|2019-03-28}}
{{Sister project links |wikt=no|b=US History/Presidents|n=no|s=Author:Martin Van Buren|v=The US Presidents/Martin Van Buren|d=Q11820|species=no|m=no|mw=no}}
* [https://www.whitehouse.gov/1600/presidents/martinvanburen White House biography]
* {{CongBio|V000009}}
* [https://www.loc.gov/rr/program/bib/presidents/vanburen/ Martin Van Buren: A Resource Guide] at the [[Library of Congress]]
* [http://vanburenpapers.org The Papers of Martin Van Buren] at [[Cumberland University]]
* [http://millercenter.org/president/vanburen American President: Martin Van Buren (1782–1862)] at the [[Miller Center of Public Affairs]], University of Virginia
** [https://web.archive.org/web/20111011055528/http://millercenter.org/president/speeches/detail/3486 Inaugural Address (March 4, 1837)], at the Miller Center
* [http://www.nps.gov/mava/ Martin Van Buren National Historic Site (Lindenwald)], [[National Park Service]]
* [http://www.c-span.org/video/?122988-1/life-portrait-martin-van-buren "Life Portrait of Martin Van Buren"], from [[C-SPAN]]'s ''[[American Presidents: Life Portraits]]'', May 3, 1999
* {{Gutenberg author |id=Van+Buren,+Martin | name=Martin Van Buren}}
* {{Internet Archive author |sname=Martin Van Buren}}
* {{Librivox author |id=11282}}

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